Article: Choosing the right Exposure Method - Aperture-Priority

The Nikon D3100’s scene modes choose an exposure method for you.

But there are three semi-automated methods (plus manual) that you can use to choose the appropriate shutter speed and aperture. You can choose among them by rotating the mode dial until the one you want is selected. Your choice of which is best for a given shooting situation will depend on things like your need for lots of (or less) depth-of-field, a desire to freeze action or allow motion blur, or how much noise you find acceptable in an image. Each of the D3100’s exposure methods emphasizes one aspect of image capture or another.

Coming articles will explain and introduces you to all four methods.

Aperture-Priority

In A mode (don’t confuse this with Auto; some point-and-shoot cameras use the letter A to represent automatic mode), you specify the lens opening used, and the D3100 selects the shutter speed.

Aperture-priority is especially good when you want to use a particular lens opening to achieve a desired effect. Perhaps you’d like to use the smallest f/stop possible to maximize depth-of-field in a close-up picture. Or, you might want to use a large f/stop to throw everything except your main subject out of focus, as in Figure 1, a chilling portrait of a menacing lizard. Maybe you’d just like to “lock in” a particular f/stop because it’s the sharpest available aperture with that lens. Or, you might prefer to use, say, f/2.8 on a lens with a maximum aperture of f/1.4, because you want the best compromise between speed and sharpness.

Aperture-priority can even be used to specify a range of shutter speeds you want to use under varying lighting conditions, which seems almost contradictory. But think about it. You’re shooting a soccer game outdoors with a telephoto lens and want a relatively high shutter speed, but you don’t care if the speed changes a little should the sun duck behind a cloud.

Figure 1: Use Aperture-priority to “lock in” a large f/stop when you want to blur the background

Set your D3100 to A, and adjust the aperture until a shutter speed of, say, 1/1,000th second is selected at your current ISO setting. (In bright sunlight at ISO 400, that aperture is likely to be around f/11.) Then, go ahead and shoot, knowing that your D3100 will maintain that f/11 aperture (for sufficient depth-of-field as the soccer players move about the field), but will drop down to 1/750th or 1/500th second if necessary should the lighting change a little.

A Lo or Hi indicator in the viewfinder, accompanied by a Subject Is Too Dark or Subject Is Too Bright warning on the LCD indicates that the D3100 is unable to select an appropriate shutter speed at the selected aperture and that over- and underexposure will occur at the current ISO setting.

That’s the major pitfall of using A: you might select an f/stop that is too small or too large to allow an optimal exposure with the available shutter speeds.

For example, if you choose f/2.8 as your aperture and the illumination is quite bright (say, at the beach or in snow), even your camera’s fastest shutter speed might not be able to cut down the amount of light reaching the sensor to provide the right exposure. Or, if you select f/8 in a dimly lit room, you might find yourself shooting with a very slow shutter speed that can cause blurring from subject movement or camera shake.

Aperture-priority is best used by those with a bit of experience in choosing settings. Many seasoned photographers leave their D3100 set on A all the time.

Summary

As I said earlier, the best knowledge comes from experiment and experience. However, in general, if you want a blurred background, open up the lens aperture (small f-stop numbers) and get close to the focus object. To make the background sharp do just the opposite.

So when you want to create a softer, blurrier background in your photos, use a wider (lower) aperture value, switch to a longer lens, and get in close to your subject.

See also

1- Controlling Depth of Field (DOF).
2- Depth of Field: One of the most important elements in photography.
3- Book by David D. Busch (NIKON D3100 GUIDE TO DIGITAL SLR PHOTOGRAPHY).

Article: Fine-Tuning Camera Exposure

Getting a Handle on Exposure

Exposure determines the look, feel, and tone of an image, in more ways than one. Incorrect exposure can impair even the best composed image by cloaking important tones in darkness, or by washing them out so they become featureless to the eye. On the other hand, correct exposure brings out the detail in the areas you want to picture, and provides the range of tones and colors you need to create the desired image.

However, getting the perfect exposure can be tricky, because digital sensors can’t capture all the tones we are able to see. If the range of tones in an image is extensive, embracing both inky black shadows and bright highlights, the sensor may not be able to capture them all. Sometimes, we must settle for an exposure that renders most of those tones—but not all—in a way that best suits the photo we want to produce. You’ll often need to make choices about which details are important, and which are not, so that you can grab the tones that truly matter in your image. That’s part of the creativity you bring to bear in realizing your photographic vision.

For example, look at the two typical tourist snapshots presented side by side in Figure 1. The camera was mounted on a tripod for both, so the only way you can really see that they are two different images is by examining the differences in the way the water flows over the rocks.

However, the pair of pictures does vary in exposure. The version on the left was underexposed, which helps bring out detail in the ridges and sky in the background, but makes the water and foreground look murky and dark. The overexposed version on the right offers better exposure for the foreground area, but now the ridges and sky are too light.

Figure 1: At left, the image is exposed for the background highlights, losing shadow detail. At right, the exposure captures detail in the shadows, but the background highlights are washed out.

With digital camera sensors, it’s tricky to capture detail in both highlights and shadows in a single image, because the number of tones, the dynamic range of the sensor, is limited. (The solution in this particular case was to combine the two photos using Photoshop.) For the image on the left, the camera calculated exposure based—mostly—on the subject matter in the background. The camera’s sensor simply can’t capture detail in both dark areas and bright areas in a single shot.

The solution, in this particular case, was to resort to a technique called High Dynamic Range (HDR) photography, in which the two exposures from Figure 1 were combined in an image editor such as Photoshop, or a specialized HDR tool like Photomatix (about $100 from www.hdrsoft.com). The resulting shot is shown in Figure 2. I’ll explain more about HDR photography later.

To understand exposure, you need to understand the six aspects of light that combine to produce an image. Start with a light source—the sun, an interior lamp, or the glow from a campfire—and trace its path to your camera, through the lens, and finally to the sensor that captures the illumination.

Figure 2: Combining the two exposures produces the best compromise image.

Here’s a brief review of the things within our control that affect exposure.

1. Light at its source.
   Our eyes and our cameras are most sensitive to visible light. That light has several important aspects that are relevant to photography, such as color, and harshness (which is determined primarily by the apparent size of the light source as it illuminates a subject). But, in terms of exposure, the important attribute of a light source is its intensity. We may have direct control over intensity, as might be the case with an interior light. Or, we might have only indirect control over intensity, as with sunlight, which can be made to appear dimmer by introducing translucent light-absorbing or reflective materials in its path.
   
   
2. Light's duration
   We tend to think of most light sources as continuous. But, as you’ll learn, the duration of light can change quickly enough to modify the exposure, as when the main illumination in a photograph comes from an intermittent source, such as an electronic flash.
   
   
3. Light reflected, transmitted, or emitted.
   Once light is produced by its source, either continuously or in a brief burst, we are able to see and photograph objects by the light that is reflected from our subjects towards the camera lens; transmitted (say, from translucent objects that are lit from behind); or emitted (by a candle or television screen). When more or less light reaches the lens from the subject, we need to adjust the exposure. This part of the equation is under our control to the extent we can increase the amount of light falling on or passing through the subject (by adding extra light sources or using reflectors), or by pumping up the light that’s emitted (by increasing the brightness of the glowing object).
   
   
4. Light passed by the lens.
   Not all the illumination that reaches the front of the lens makes it all the way through. Filters can remove some of the light before it enters the lens. Inside the lens barrel is a variable-sized diaphragm called an aperture that dilates and contracts, producing a variable-sized aperture to control the amount of light that passes through the lens. You, or your camera auto exposure system, can control exposure by varying the size of the aperture. The relative size of the aperture is called the f/stop.
   
   
5. Light passing through the shutter. Once lightpasses through the lens, the amount of time the sensor receives it is determined by camera shutter, which can remain open for as long as 30 seconds (or even longer if you use the Bulb setting) or as briefly as 1/4,000th second.
   
   
6. Light captured by the sensor.
   Not all the light falling onto the sensor is captured. If the number of photons reaching a particular photo site doesn’t pass a set threshold, no information is recorded. Similarly, if too much light illuminates a pixel in the sensor, then the excess isn’t recorded or, worse, spills over to contaminate adjacent pixels. We can modify the number of pixels that contribute to image detail by adjusting the ISO setting. At higher ISOs, the incoming light is amplified to boost the effective sensitivity of the sensor.
   

These factors—the quantity of light produced by the light source; the amount reflected or transmitted towards the camera; the light passed by the lens; the amount of time the shutter is open; and the sensitivity of the sensor—all work proportionately and reciprocally to produce an exposure.
That is, if you double the amount of light that’s available, increase the aperture by one stop, make the shutter speed twice as long, or boost the ISO setting 2X, you’ll get twice as much exposure. Similarly, you can increase any of these factors while decreasing one of the others by a similar amount to keep the same exposure.

F/STOPS AND SHUTTER SPEEDS
If you’re really new to more advanced cameras, you might need to know that the lens aperture, or f/stop, is a ratio, much like a fraction, which is why f/2 is larger than f/4, just as 1/2 is larger than 1/4. However, f/2 is actually four times as large as f/4. (If you remember your high school geometry, you’ll know that to double the area of a circle, you multiply its diameter by the square root of two: 1.4.)

Lenses are usually marked with intermediate f/stops that represent a size that’s twice as much/half as much as the previous aperture. So, a lens might be marked: f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, with each larger number representing an aperture that admits half as much light as the one before, as shown in Figure 3.

Shutter speeds are actual fractions (of a second), but the numerator is omitted, so that 60, 125, 250, 500, 1,000, and so forth represent 1/60th, 1/125th, 1/250th, 1/500th, and 1/1,000th second. To avoid confusion, Nikon uses quotation marks to signify longer exposures: 2", 2"5, 4", and so forth represent 2.0, 2.5, and 4.0 second exposures, respectively.

Figure 3: Top row (left to right): f/2, f/2.8, and f/4; bottom row, f/5.6, f/8, f11.

Most commonly, exposure settings are made using the aperture and shutter speed, followed by adjusting the ISO sensitivity if it’s not possible to get the preferred exposure (that is, the one that uses the “best” f/stop or shutter speed for the depth-of-field or action-stopping we want). Table 1 shows equivalent exposure settings using various shutter speeds and f/stops.

Table 1: Equivalent Exposures
Shutter speed	f/stop	Shutter speed	f/stop
1/30th second	f/22	1/500th second	f/5.6
1/60th second	f/16	1/1000th second	f/4
1/125th second	f/11	1/2000th second	f/2.8
1/250th second	f/8	1/4000th second	f/2

When the D3100 is set for P mode, the metering system selects the correct exposure for you automatically, but you can change quickly to an equivalent exposure by holding down the shutter release button halfway (“locking” the current exposure), and then spinning the command dial until the desired equivalent exposure combination is displayed.

Rotate the dial to the right to increase the size of the aperture and make the shutter speed faster (for less depth-of-field/more action-stopping power) or to the left to use smaller apertures and slower shutter speeds (to increase depth-of-field while potentially adding some blur from subject or camera motion). Nikon calls this ability Flexible Programming and the camera displays a star-like symbol adjacent to the P indicator that lets you know it is in effect.

In Aperture-priority (A) and Shutter-priority (S) modes, you can change to an equivalent exposure, but only by adjusting either the aperture (the camera chooses the shutter speed) or shutter speed (the camera selects the aperture). I’ll cover all these exposure modes later in another post.

Article: Set the correct white balance for your shoot

Color balance correction is the process of rendering accurate colors in your final image.

Most people don’t even notice that light has different color characteristics because the human eye automatically adjusts to different color temperatures—so quickly, in fact, that everything looks correct in a matter of milliseconds.

When color film ruled the world, photographers would select which film to use depending on what their light source was going to be. The most common film was balanced for daylight, but you could also buy film that was color balanced for tungsten light sources. Most other lighting situations had to be handled by using color filters over the lens. This process was necessary for the photographer’s final image to show the correct color balance of a scene.

Your camera has the ability to perform this same process automatically, but you can also choose to override it and set it manually. Guess which method we are going to use? That’s right, once again your photography should be all about maintaining control over everything that influences your final image.

Luckily, you don’t need to have a deep understanding of color temperatures to control your camera’s white balance. The choices are given to you in terms that are easy to relate to and that will make things pretty simple. Your white balance choices are:

1. Auto:
The default setting for your camera. It is also the setting used by all of the automatic scene modes.
2. Daylight:
Most often used for general daylight/sun-lit shooting.
3. Shade:
Used when working in shaded areas that are still using sunlight as the dominant light source.
4. Cloudy:
The choice for overcast or very cloudy days. This and the Shade setting will eliminate the blue color cast from your images.
5. Incandescent:
Used for any occasion where you are using regular household-type bulbs for your light source. Tungsten is a very warm light source and will result in a yellow/orange cast if you don’t correct for it.
6. Cool-White Fluorescent:
Used to get rid of the green-blue cast that can result from using regular fluorescent lights as your dominant light source. Some fluorescent lights are actually balanced for daylight, which would allow you to use the Daylight white balance setting.
7. Flash:
Used whenever you’re using the built-in flash or a flash on the hot shoe. You should select this white balance to adjust for the slightly cooler light that comes from using a flash. (The hot shoe is the small bracket located on the top of your camera, which rests just above the eyepiece. This bracket is used for attaching a more powerful flash to the camera).
8. Pre:
Indicates that you are using a customized white balance that is adjusted for a particular light source. This option can be adjusted using an existing photo you have taken or by taking a picture of something white or gray in the scene.

Article: The value of image histogram in cameras

THE VALUE OF THE HISTOGRAM

Simply put, histograms are two-dimensional representations of your images in graph form.

There are two different histograms that you should be concerned with: the luminance and the color histograms. Luminance is referred to in your manual as “brightness” and is most valuable when evaluating your exposures. In Figure 1.1, you see what looks like a mountain range.

FIGURE 1.1
This is a typical histogram, where the dark to light tones run from left to right. The black-towhite gradient above the graph demonstrates where the tones lie on the graph and would not appear above your camera histogram display.

The graph represents the entire tonal range that your camera can capture, from the whitest whites to the blackest blacks. The left side represents black, all the way to the right side, which represents white. The heights of the peaks represent the number of pixels that contain those luminance levels (a tall peak in the middle means your image contains a large amount of medium-bright pixels).

Looking at this figure, it is hard to determine where all of the ranges of light and dark areas are and how much of each I have. If I look at the histogram, I can see that the largest peak of the graph is in the middle and trails off as it reaches the edges. In most cases, you would look for this type of histogram, indicating that you captured the entire range of tones, from dark to light, in your image. Knowing that is fine, but here is where the information really gets useful.

When you evaluate the histogram that has a spike or peak riding up the far left or right side of the graph, it means that you are clipping detail from your image. In essence, you are trying to record values that are either too dark or too light for your sensor to accurately record. This is usually an indication of over- or underexposure. It also means that you need to correct your exposure so that the important details will not record as solid black or white pixels (which is what happens when clipping occurs). There are times, however, when some clipping is acceptable.

If you are photographing a scene where the sun will be in the frame, you can expect to get some clipping because the sun is just too bright to hold any detail. Likewise, if you are shooting something that has true blacks in it—think coal in a mineshaft at midnight—there are most certainly going to be some true blacks with no detail in your shot.

FIGURE 1.2
This image is about two stops underexposed. Notice the histogram is skewed to the left.

The main goal is to ensure that you aren’t clipping any “important” visual information,and that is achieved by keeping an eye on your histogram. Take a look at Figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.3
This histogram reflects a correctly exposed image.

The histogram displayed on the image shows a heavy skew toward the left with almost no part of the mountain touching the right side. This is a good example of what an underexposed image histogram looks like. Now look at Figure 1.3 and compare the histogram for the image that was correctly exposed. Notice that even though there are two distinct peaks on the graph, there is an even distribution across the entire histogram.